Estratégias de implantação dos controles ambientais para prevenir a disseminação da tuberculose hospitalar / Estrategias para la implementacion de controles ambientales en la prevencion de la propagacion de la tuberculosis en los establecimientos de salud / Strategies for implementation of environmental controls to prevent the spread of tuberculosis in health-care settings

A transmissão intra-hospitalar da tuberculose consisteemumproblemade saúde ocupacional, e as medidas de controleefetivas incluem os controles ambientais que visam prevenir a disseminação dessa doença e reduzir as partículasinfecciosas aéreas. Trata-se de um estudo descritivo, realizado como objetivo de descrever a estrutura necessária paraimplantar e operacionalizar uma unidade de isolamento para tuberculose com pressão negativa do ar. A unidade foiprojetada comumsistema de climatização comcontrole de temperatura de 22±2 oC, recirculação do ar, filtragem HEPA,20 trocas de ar por hora e pressão negativa. Após a reforma da unidade e a implantação dos controles ambientais,o funcionamento do isolamento respiratório foi monitorizado por 12 meses. As ocasiões em que a pressão negativase tornou neutra foram identificadas pelos manômetros nos quartos e nos filtros, indicando a saturação deles e suasubstituição. Em seguida, a pressão negativa foi restabelecida. O investimento para a implantação do isolamento foide 75 mil dólares e o custo mensal de manutenção, 550 dólares. A unidade requer gerenciamento apropriado paraassegurar a proteção dos profissionais da saúde e demais pacientes.

Thenosocomial transmission of tuberculosis is a seriousoccupational health problem.Aneffectiveprevention of this diseaseincludes environmental measures to avoid its dissemination and to reduce the amount of droplet nuclei in the air. It is adescriptive study that aimed to describe the necessary structure for the implementation of an isolation roomwith negativeair pressure for patients with tuberculosis. The units were projected with HVAC system with temperature control at 22±2ºC, air recirculation system, HEPA filters, twenty two air changes per hour and negative air pressure. After repairs and theimplementation of the environmental control the functioning of the respiratory isolation wasmonitored for 12months. Inthe event of the negative air pressure becoming neutral the manometers in the room would display the filters saturationlevel and the need for their replacement. Soon after that the negative air pressure could be restarted. The isolation unitimplementationrequiredaninvestmentofUS$75,000.00 being themonthly repaircostUS$550.00.Therespiratoryisolationunit requires specific management strategies so as to ensure the protection of healthcare workers and patients.

La transmisión intrahospitalaria de la tuberculosis es un problema de salud en el trabajo y las medidas efectivas decontrol incluyen controles ambientales destinados a prevenir la diseminación de la enfermedad y reducir la cantidadde partículas infecciosas en el aire. Este estudio se realizó con el objetivo de describir la estructura necesaria paraimplementar y operar una unidad de aislamiento para la tuberculosis con presión de aire negativa. La unidad fuediseñada con un sistema de climatización con control de temperatura de 22 ± 2 ° C, recirculación del aire, filtros HEPA,veinte cambios de airepor horaypresión negativa. Después del proceso de reforma e implementación de los controlesambientales, el funcionamiento del aislamiento respiratorio fue monitoreado durante doce meses. Las ocasiones enque la presión negativa se convirtió en neutra fueron identificadas por manómetros en las habitaciones y en los filtros,señalando saturación y necesidad de sustitución. En seguida, la presión negativa fue restablecida. La inversión parainstalar el aislamiento fue de U$S 75.000,00yel costodemantenimiento mensual es de U$S 550,00. La unidad requiereestrategias de gestión adecuadas para garantizar la protección de los profesionales de la salud y de los pacientes.

Prevalence and clinical outcomes of episodes of ventilator-associated pneumonia caused by SPM-1-producing and non-producing imipenem-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa / Prevalência e evolução clínica de episódios de pneumonia associada à ventilação mecânica causada por Pseudomonas aeruginosa resistente a imipenem produtoras e não-produtoras de SPM-1

INTRODUCTION: Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a leading cause of ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) and exhibits high rates of resistance to several antimicrobial drugs. The carbapenens are usually the drugs of choice against this microorganism. However, the carbapenem resistance has increased among these strains worldwide. The presence of metallo-β-lactamases (MBL) has been pointed out as a major mechanism of resistance among these strains. No previous study addressed outcomes of respiratory infections caused by these strains. METHODS: Our group sought to analyze the epidemiology and clinical outcomes of patients with VAP caused by imipenem-resistant P. aeruginosa. A total of 29 clinical isolates of carbapenem-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa were screened for metallo-β-lactamase (MBL) genes. RESULTS: Demographic and clinical variables were similar between the SPM-1-producing and non-SPM-1-producing group. Five (17.2 percent) isolates were positive for blaSPM-1. No other MBL gene was found. All patients were treated with polymyxin B. The infection-related mortality was 40 percent and 54.2 percent for SPM-1-producing and -non-producing isolates, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: There were no differences in epidemiological and clinical outcomes between the two groups.

INTRODUÇÃO: Pseudomonas aeruginosa é uma importante causa de pneumonia associada à ventilação mecânica (PAV) e exibe altas taxas de resistência a vários antimicrobianos. Os carbapenens são usualmente as drogas de escolha para esse microorganismo. Contudo, a resistência a carbapenens tem crescido entre essas amostras em todo o mundo. A presença de metalo- β-lactamase (MBL) tem sido apontado como um importante mecanismo de resistência nessas cepas. Nenhum estudo prévio avaliou desfechos clínicos de infecções respiratórias causadas por essas amostras MÉTODOS: Nosso grupo analisou a epidemiologia e evolução clínica de episódios de PAV causada por P. aeruginosa resistente a imipenem. Um total de vinte e nove isolados clínicos de Pseudomonas aeruginosa resistente a carbapenem foram avaliados quanto à presença de genes para metalo-β-lactamase (MBL). RESULTADOS: Variáveis clínicas e demográficas foram similares entre o grupo produtor de SPM-1 e o não-produtor. Cinco (17,2 por cento) isolados foram positivos para blaSPM-1. Nenhum outro gene para MBL foi encontrado. Todos os pacientes foram tratados com polimixina B. A mortalidade relacionada à infecção foi de 40 por cento e 50 por cento respectivamente para os isolados produtores de SPM-1 e não-produtores de SPM-1. CONCLUSÕES: Nao houve diferença entre os dados epidemiológicos e a evolução clínica entre os dois grupos.

Risk factors for catheter-related bloodstream infection: a prospective multicenter study in Brazilian intensive care units

INTRODUCTION: Central venous catheters (CVC) are devices of great importance in health care. The advantages gained from the use of catheters outweigh the complications that might result from their use, among which bloodstream infections (BSI). In spite of its importance, few national studies have addressed this issue. OBJECTIVE: The aim this study was to determine the incidence of BSI in patients with CVC, hospitalized in ICU, as well as the variables associated with this complication. METHODS: Multicentric cohort study carried out at ICUs of three hospitals at Universidade Federal de São Paulo complex. RESULTS: A total of 118 cases of BSI in 11.546 catheters day were observed: 10.22 BSI per 1,000 catheters day. On average, BSI was associated to seven additional days of hospital stay in our study (p < 0.001), with a significant difference between types of catheters. Concerning the place of insertion, there was no statistical difference in BSI rates. CONCLUSION: We concluded that a patient who uses a catheter for longer than 13 days presents a progressive risk for infection of approximately three times higher in relation to a patient who uses the catheter for less than 13 days (p < 0.001). The median duration of catheter use was 14 days among patients with BSI and 9 days in patients without infection (p < 0.001). There was higher prevalence of Gram-negative infections. The risk factors for BSI were utilization of multiple-lumen catheters, duration of catheterization and ICU length of stay.

Multivariate analysis of the factors associated with the risk of pneumonia in intensive care units

Pneumonia is the most frequent hospital infection in patients admitted to intensive care units (ICU) and is also responsible for the highest lethality rates, as well as an increase in both the duration and costs of hospitalization. The objective of this study was to identify predisposing factors for pneumonia. A prospective cohort study was carried out between June 1996 and June 1997, and included 540 patients admitted consecutively for periods greater than 24 hours to the adult ICU of the Londrina State University's Teaching Hospital. Of these, 83 (15.4 percent) developed pneumonia. All patients were analyzed with respect to various risk factors for hospital-acquired pneumonia. Univariate analysis identified the following factors: decreased level of consciousness, craniotomy, prior use of antibiotics, mechanical ventilation, nasogastric tube feeding, enteral feeding, aspiration of gastric contents, central venous catheter and the time spent in the ICU. Multivariate analysis identified four risk factors for pneumonia in the ICU: tracheotomy (RR = 1.09; 95 percentCI = 1.04-1.17), nasogastric tube feeding (RR = 1.11; 95 percentCI = 1.05-1.18), H2-blocker use (RR = 1.09; 95 percentCI = 1.05-1.14) and decreased level of consciousness (RR = 2.67; 95 percentCI = 1.43-5.04). In 56.6 percent of patients, pneumonia occurred within the first four days following ICU admission. The risk factors identified were all necessary for the treatment of the patient except for decreased level of consciousness, either present at admission or occurring during hospitalization due to deterioration in the clinical condition of the patient or to the use of sedatives.

Eventos adversos relacionados à profilaxia anti-retroviral em acidentes ocupacionais / Adverse events relating to antiretroviral prophylaxis for occupational accidents

O objetivo do estudo foi descrever os eventos adversos clínicos e laboratoriais secundários ao uso dos agentes anti-retrovirais em indivíduos submetidos à quimioprofilaxia. Foram avaliados 37 funcionários de um hospital universitário submetidos à quimioprofilaxia com quatro esquemas de medicação anti-retroviral após exposição ocupacional a fluidos de pacientes contaminados com infecção pelo vírus da imunodeficiência humana. Trinta e dois (86,5 por cento) desenvolveram eventos adversos clínicos ou laboratoriais. A profilaxia teve que ser suspensa em dois profissionais (5,4 por cento) em virtude das reações ocorridas. Os eventos adversos relacionados à quimioprofilaxia para infecção por HIV em funcionários de saúde, vítimas de acidente ocupacional foram freqüentes. Porém, raramente foi necessário retirar a medicação anti-retroviral.

The objective of the study was to describe adverse events detected clinically or in the laboratory that were secondary to the use of antiretroviral agents among individuals undergoing antiretroviral prophylaxis. Evaluations were performed on 37 teaching hospital employees who underwent prophylaxis using four regimens of antiretroviral medication following occupational exposition to contaminated fluids from patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Thirty-two (86.5 percent) developed adverse events detected clinically or in the laboratory. The prophylaxis administered to two professionals (5.4 percent) had to be suspended because of the reactions that occurred. Adverse events relating to prophylaxis for HIV infection in health care workers who were victims of occupational accidents were frequent. However, it was rarely necessary to withdraw the antiretroviral medication.

Efficacy of a program of prevention and control for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections in an intensive-care unit

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is endemic in most Brazilian Hospitals, and there are few studies which show the efficacy of control measures in such situations. This study evaluated intensive care unit (ICU) patients, in two years divided in control, intervention and post-intervention group. Intervention measures: hands-on educational programs for healthcare workers; early identification of MRSA infected or colonized patients, labeled with a bed-identification tag for contact isolation; nasal carriers, patients, and healthcare professionals treated with topical mupirocin for five days. The hospital infection rates in the control period were compared to the ones in the post-intervention period. Hospital infection rates were found by means of the NNISS methodology The incidence coefficients of MRSA hospital infection (monthly average of 1,000 pts/day) in the control, intervention and post-intervention groups were respectively: 10.2, 5.1 and 2.5/1,000 pts/day (p<0.001) and MRSA-originated bloodstream infections were 3.6, 0.9 and 1.8/1,000 central venous catheter/day (p=0.281). Nasal colonization in both intervention and post-intervention periods was of 30.9 percent and 22.1 percent among the hospitalized patients, respectively 54.4 percent and 46.1 percent of whom were already MRSA-positive when admitted to the unit. In the intervention period, most of those MRSA infected patients (76.2 percent) were nasal carrier. Mortality rates were, respectively 26.6 percent; 27.3 percent and 21.0 percent (p<0.001). Nasal carriers, both patients (93.7 percent) and healthcare professionals (88.2 percent), were successfully treated with topical mupirocin. Intervention measures for the prevention and control of MRSA infections in ICUs, have been efficient in the reduction of the bloodstream and MRSA-originated hospital infections incidence, and reduced the overall mortality rate significantly.

Prevalence and factors associated with rectal vancomycin-resistant enterococci colonization in two intensive care units in São Paulo, Brazil

Vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE) are important pathogens causing nosocomial infections, and there is reason for concern about their resistance and great ability to spread in hospital environments, especially intensive-care units (ICU). To determine the prevalence of rectal colonization by VRE, and the risk factors associated with their presence, rectal surveillance swabs were taken from patients under treatment in two intensive-care units (one medical and another both medical and surgical) at São Paulo Hospital, over a two-year period. Thirty-three percent of the 147 patients evaluated had VRE. The only significant variable in the logistic regression was the length of stay in the ICU.

Incidência de Enterococcus resistente à vancomicina em hospital universitário no Brasil / Incidence of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus at a university hospital in Brazil

OBJETIVO: O enterococo resistente à vancomicina é atualmente um dos principais microorganismos implicados em infecções nosocomiais. Assim, realizou-se estudo com o objetivo de avaliar sua epidemiologia em um hospital terciário de ensino. MÉTODOS: Trata-se de um estudo epidemiológico retrospectivo, realizado de 2000 a 2002, que analisou amostras de culturas clínicas positivas para enterococo resistente à vancomicina (VRE) em um hospital universitário com 660 leitos. Procurou-se definir sua incidência e os principais sítios e unidades de isolamento. Foi verificada a significância entre as variáveis nos três anos de estudo, sendo considerado como significante p<0,05. RESULTADOS: Houve aumento progressivo na resistência à vancomicina nas culturas clínicas positivas para Enterococcus spp. nos três anos de estudo. Em 2000, 9,5 por cento das amostras eram resistentes à vancomicina, com aumento para 14,7 por cento em 2001 e 15,8 por cento em 2002. As unidades com maior número de isolados foram respectivamente: pronto-socorro (19,5 por cento) e UTI geral (15 por cento); os sítios mais isolados foram: urina (36 por cento) e sangue (20 por cento). CONCLUSÕES: Com o aumento progressivo na incidência de resistência à vancomicina e da taxa de VRE, concluiu-se ser necessárias medidas de controle mais efetivas para deter a disseminação do VRE.